Academic R&D activity employs large numbers of people in diverse roles, including faculty researchers, nonfaculty researchers, students at all levels, postdocs, and support staff ranging from custodial workers to senior professionals. In addition to producing new knowledge disseminated through publications, presentations, and various forms of intellectual property, academic R&D activity contributes to the education and training of graduates at all levels, many of whom go on to careers as academic scientists and engineers. In its Vision 2030, NSB noted that talent is one of four elements of S&E leadership that the United States must maintain if it is to continue leading the world in innovation in 2030 (NSB 2020).

This section presents an overview of the people engaged in academic R&D in U.S. institutions, with a focus on faculty, graduate students, and postdocs. For graduate students and postdocs, this section also provides detailed data on sources of financial support for their research and education.^{​Data on human resources in academic R&D are drawn primarily from three sources: the NCSES Survey of Graduate Students and Postdoctorates in Science and Engineering (GSS), the NCSES Survey of Earned Doctorates (SED), and the NCSES Survey of Doctorate Recipients (SDR).Data on human resources in academic R&D are drawn primarily from three sources: the NCSES Survey of Graduate Students and Postdoctorates in Science and Engineering (GSS), the NCSES Survey of Earned Doctorates (SED), and the NCSES Survey of Doctorate Recipients (SDR).} Ensuring financial support for students, postdocs, and researchers in S&E and S&E-related fields is essential to developing and retaining the talent needed for the nation to lead global innovation.

The higher education sector is a large employer of individuals holding research doctorates in S&E fields.^{​Data on the academic workforce are drawn primarily from the NCSES SDR, which uses a sampling method to measure trends in doctorate holders in science, engineering, and health fields. In this report, these fields are noted collectively as S&E.Data on the academic workforce are drawn primarily from the NCSES SDR, which uses a sampling method to measure trends in doctorate holders in science, engineering, and health fields. In this report, these fields are noted collectively as S&E.} The doctoral academic workforce trains the next generation of scientists and engineers and advances the nation’s R&D enterprise, especially basic research. In 2021, about 347,000 members of the doctoral academic workforce received an S&E doctorate in the United States (Table SURD-1).^{​Data in this section on human resources are based on statistical samples of relevant populations, whereas the R&D spending data in previous sections are based on a census of the full population of relevant academic institutions.Data in this section on human resources are based on statistical samples of relevant populations, whereas the R&D spending data in previous sections are based on a census of the full population of relevant academic institutions.}

In the last 30 years, S&E doctorate holders made an employment shift from the academic to the for-profit business sector. In 1993, nearly half of S&E doctorate holders (45%) were employed by universities and 4-year colleges, whereas 31% were employed by private, for-profit businesses (NSF 1996: Table 20). By 2021, these percentages shifted, with 39% in 4-year educational institutions and 37% in for-profit businesses (NCSES SDR 2021: Table 42). As a proportion of all academically employed S&E doctorate holders, however, the number employed as full-time faculty declined since at least 2003 to about 70% in 2021.^{​Data are from a special tabulation of the 2021 SDR. For longer time trends, see Figure LBR-18 in the Indicators 2022 report “The STEM Labor Force of Today: Scientists, Engineers, and Skilled Technical Workers.”Data are from a special tabulation of the 2021 SDR. For longer time trends, see Figure LBR-18 in the Indicators 2022 report “The STEM Labor Force of Today: Scientists, Engineers, and Skilled Technical Workers.”}

In 2021, 39% of U.S.-trained S&E doctorate holders working in academia reported that research was their primary work activity, and 41% reported being engaged primarily in teaching (Table SURD-2).^{​For longer time trends, see the Indicators 2022 report “The STEM Labor Force of Today: Scientists, Engineers, and Skilled Technical Workers.”For longer time trends, see the Indicators 2022 report “The STEM Labor Force of Today: Scientists, Engineers, and Skilled Technical Workers.”} In 2021, about 40% of academically employed S&E doctorate holders had received federal research support in the previous year (Table SURD-3).

The number of women in the S&E doctoral academic workforce increased from about 78,700 to about 140,800 between 2003 and 2021, while the number of men grew from about 180,700 to about 206,400 (Table SURD-4). In 2021, women accounted for about 41% of S&E doctorate holders employed in academia, up from 30% in 2003, and they accounted for 35% of full-time senior faculty (including full professors and associate professors) in 2021, up from 23% in 2003. During this period, the proportion of female S&E doctorate holders in academic positions increased in all fields (Figure URD-17). The proportion of women in the doctoral academic workforce varied across disciplines (Figure URD-18). In 2021, the proportion of female S&E doctorate holders was larger than that of men in the life sciences, the social sciences, and psychology; in contrast, a smaller proportion of women than men were employed in engineering, physical sciences, mathematics and statistics, and computer and information sciences. (For data on degree awards by sex at the bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral levels, see the Indicators 2024 report “Higher Education in Science and Engineering.”)

The proportion of individuals who identified as Hispanic or Latino, Black or African American, or American Indian or Alaska Native (underrepresented minorities, or URMs) in all academic positions increased from about 7% in 2006 to 10% in 2021 and from 7% to 9% among full-time faculty (Table SURD-5). Among all academic positions in the S&E doctoral workforce (including full-time faculty, postdocs, and other positions) during this period, the proportion of URMs grew in all S&E fields except for computer and information sciences (Figure URD-19).^{​Fields shown in Figure URD-19 are those in which the differences observed were statistically significant.Fields shown in Figure URD-19 are those in which the differences observed were statistically significant.} In 2021, the proportions of URM psychology and social sciences doctorate holders employed in academia were larger than those of their White and Asian or Pacific Islander counterparts, and the proportions of URM doctorate holders in mathematics and statistics and the physical sciences employed in academia were lower (Figure URD-20). (For data on degree awards by race and ethnicity at the bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral levels, see the Indicators 2024 report “Higher Education in Science and Engineering.”)

Graduate students and postdocs are also members of the academic research workforce, often running experiments and conducting studies under faculty supervision. In the United States, doctoral universities with the highest research activity enroll the majority of S&E graduate students and appoint most of the postdocs (NCSES GSS 2021: Table 5-3). For example, in 2021, 56% of master’s students and 81% of doctoral students were enrolled at very high research doctoral universities, and 83% of S&E postdocs had appointments in these institutions.^{​The GSS is an annual census of all U.S. academic institutions granting research-based master’s degrees or doctorates in science, engineering, and health fields as of the fall of the survey year. In this report, science, engineering, and health are noted collectively as S&E.The GSS is an annual census of all U.S. academic institutions granting research-based master’s degrees or doctorates in science, engineering, and health fields as of the fall of the survey year. In this report, science, engineering, and health are noted collectively as S&E.}

Advanced education and research are tightly coupled in academia. This is especially true for graduate students and postdocs in S&E. Engagement in research is a principal mechanism through which students learn how to conduct research and to develop in-depth knowledge of their fields of specialization. To ensure that graduate students or postdocs have the resources to pursue their studies and complete their training, the institutions that enroll or appoint them often provide financial support.^{​Comprehensive data are not available on the number of undergraduate students engaged in research or on the sources or amounts of financial support for those so involved.Comprehensive data are not available on the number of undergraduate students engaged in research or on the sources or amounts of financial support for those so involved.} This support may take the form of research assistantships (RAs), typically funded by research grants or contracts; teaching assistantships (TAs), typically funded by the institution; and fellowships, paid directly to the individual students by government agencies and other sources. Many full-time graduate RAs, fellowships, and postdoc appointments are supported with funding from research grants and contracts awarded by federal agencies.^{​Additional aspects of graduate study, including degrees by field and debt, are available in the Indicators 2020 report “Higher Education in Science and Engineering.” Likewise, other aspects of the postdoctoral labor force, including salaries and demographics, can be found in the Indicators 2022 report “The STEM Labor Force of Today: Scientists, Engineers, and Skilled Technical Workers.”Additional aspects of graduate study, including degrees by field and debt, are available in the Indicators 2020 report “Higher Education in Science and Engineering.” Likewise, other aspects of the postdoctoral labor force, including salaries and demographics, can be found in the Indicators 2022 report “The STEM Labor Force of Today: Scientists, Engineers, and Skilled Technical Workers.”} In addition, some graduate students are self-supported or receive support from family, employers, their home countries, or student loans (or a mix of such sources).

The availability of institutional or federal support for graduate students may affect how much students pay out of pocket and how much education-related debt they incur (NCSES 2019a). Graduate students in S&E fields receive support through various mechanisms, including RAs, TAs, and fellowships.^{​In 2021, these were the most common funding mechanisms for S&E doctoral students: 40% received RAs, 24% TAs, 16% fellowships, 9% self-support, 4% traineeships, and 7% other types of support (NCSES GSS 2021: Table 3-5). In 2021, large majorities (73% and above) of doctorate recipients in most S&E fields reported holding no debt related to their graduate education (NCSES SED 2021: Figure 17). In social sciences, health sciences, and in non-S&E fields, the proportion of doctorate recipients with no debt ranged between 53% and 63%; in psychology, it was 48%.In 2021, these were the most common funding mechanisms for S&E doctoral students: 40% received RAs, 24% TAs, 16% fellowships, 9% self-support, 4% traineeships, and 7% other types of support (NCSES GSS 2021: Table 3-5). In 2021, large majorities (73% and above) of doctorate recipients in most S&E fields reported holding no debt related to their graduate education (NCSES SED 2021: Figure 17). In social sciences, health sciences, and in non-S&E fields, the proportion of doctorate recipients with no debt ranged between 53% and 63%; in psychology, it was 48%.} Of the full-time S&E graduate students supported by the federal government in 2021, 69% received RAs funded from research grants. TAs and fellowships were funded most frequently by the student’s institution, whereas nearly half of RAs were funded through federal academic research grants (NCSES GSS 2021: Special tabulation).

Graduate students’ sources of financial support depend on their level of study.^{​This report discusses sources and mechanisms of graduate student funding. Funding sources include federal, institutional, and personal or self-support, among others. Personal sources include loans (including federal loans) or personal or family financial contributions. Funding mechanisms include assistantships, fellowships, and traineeships, among others.This report discusses sources and mechanisms of graduate student funding. Funding sources include federal, institutional, and personal or self-support, among others. Personal sources include loans (including federal loans) or personal or family financial contributions. Funding mechanisms include assistantships, fellowships, and traineeships, among others.} In 2021, around 71% of S&E master’s students paid for their graduate program using personal sources (NCSES GSS 2021: Table 3-1); by contrast, 9% of doctoral students did so. These differences generally held across all S&E fields. Academic institutions were the primary source of support, including tuition waivers and stipends, for 22% of master’s students and 58% of doctoral students. The federal government was the primary source of support for 5% of master’s students and 26% of doctoral students. Federal support includes financial support provided by federal agencies but excludes federally guaranteed student loans.

Most doctoral students are supported by multiple sources or mechanisms during graduate school, even in a single academic year. Patterns of support vary by field and the type of institution attended. For example, in 2021, RAs were the most common primary source of financial support for doctorate recipients in engineering, computer and information sciences, physical sciences, and agricultural sciences and natural resources; in mathematics and statistics, TAs were most common (NCSES SED 2021: Figure 16). In 2021, the institutions that most frequently supported doctoral students with RAs and TAs, traineeships, fellowships, scholarships, or dissertation grants were doctoral institutions with the highest research activity and those with medical schools and centers (Figure URD-21). In contrast, 79% of doctorate recipients in doctoral institutions with moderate research activity and 56% of those in master’s colleges and universities used their own resources as their primary source of financial support. Funding mechanisms also varied by demographic groups (Figure URD-22).

Overall, among U.S. citizens and permanent residents who earned S&E doctorates between 2017 and 2021, a larger proportion of men (35%) than women (27%) were supported by RAs, whereas a larger proportion of women (18%) than men (11%) supported themselves through personal or family funds (Table SURD-6). Similar proportions of women and men (16% and 18%, respectively) were supported by TAs. Larger proportions of Asian (36%) and White (33%) doctorate recipients than doctorate recipients from URM groups reported RAs, traineeships, or internships as their primary source of support. Twenty-two percent of Hispanics, 17% of Blacks, and 14% of American Indians or Alaska Natives who earned S&E doctorates between 2017 and 2021 had RAs, traineeships, or internships as their primary source of financial support. To some extent, these differences may reflect differences across demographic groups in doctorate recipients’ fields and the types of institutions they attended. However, certain patterns held across fields. For example, larger proportions of Black doctorate recipients than those from other groups used personal sources of funding in almost every S&E field.

The primary sources of financial support of S&E doctorate recipients varied by citizenship status. Overall, a larger proportion of S&E doctorate recipients who were temporary visa holders than those who were U.S. citizens or permanent residents reported RAs or traineeships as their primary source of support (52% vs. 34%) (NCSES SED 2021: Table 4-1). In contrast, a larger proportion of S&E doctorate recipients who were U.S. citizens and permanent residents than those who were temporary visa holders reported support from fellowships, scholarships, dissertation grants, and their own sources. Patterns of primary financial support also varied by field of study. 

In 2021, most S&E postdocs (61%) were funded through research grants (NCSES GSS 2021: Table 3-6). Postdocs were also funded through fellowships (10%), traineeships (6%), and other mechanisms of support (23%). The proportion of postdocs funded through research grants was higher among those who were supported by federal funding (81%).^{​Data are from a special tabulation of NCSES (GSS 2021).Data are from a special tabulation of NCSES (GSS 2021).} In 2021, the federal government funded 51% of S&E postdocs (down from around 60% in 2009) (NCSES GSS 2009: Table 70; GSS 2021: Table 3-2). The federal government funded 40% or more of postdocs in all fields except civil, environmental, transportation, and related engineering (38%); industrial, manufacturing, systems engineering, and operations research (32%); mathematics and statistics (30%); and social sciences (21%). In 2021, institutions funded between 17% and 32% of all postdocs in most fields other than mathematics and statistics (49%); social sciences (47%); and industrial, manufacturing, systems engineering, and operations research (41%).^{​The data tables from 2009 do not separate nonfederal sources of support for postdocs, so a comparison cannot be provided.The data tables from 2009 do not separate nonfederal sources of support for postdocs, so a comparison cannot be provided.} Other nonfederal domestic sources funded 15% of postdocs, and foreign sources funded around 2%.

Almost all U.S. academic postdoctoral appointments were located at very high research doctoral universities (83%), high research doctoral universities (5%), and medical schools and centers (10%) (NCSES GSS 2021: Table 5-3). Just over half of postdocs (53%) were located at public institutions (NCSES GSS 2021: Table 5-1). Postdoctoral appointments were concentrated in the biological and biomedical sciences and in health sciences in 2021 (60% in these two fields combined in 2021; NCSES GSS 2021: Table 3-2 and Table 5-1).^{​These calculations exclude appointments in natural resources and conservation and in multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary studies.These calculations exclude appointments in natural resources and conservation and in multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary studies.} Physical sciences (11%) and engineering (13%) constituted most of the remainder.

Federal agencies support S&E graduate students and postdocs in different numbers and proportions because of practices within the disciplines supported by those agencies. For example, in 2021, NIH supported 59% of all postdocs in academic R&D (NCSES GSS 2021: Table 3-4). Much of the NIH spending on academic R&D was concentrated in the biological and biomedical sciences, the field with the largest share of postdocs (32% in 2021) (NCSES GSS 2021: Table 4-1). NSF, which distributes its academic R&D funding across a broad range of fields, supported a larger share of graduate students (26% of all S&E graduate students) than postdocs (12% of all postdocs) in 2021 (NCSES GSS 2021: Table 3-3 and Table 3-4).

The federal government supported around 15% of full-time S&E graduate students (82,588 of 543,823) in 2021 (NCSES GSS 2021: Table 1-6), down from 21% (83,816 of 402,573) in 2004. The proportion of doctoral students supported by the federal government (26%) was higher than the proportion of the master’s students supported (5%).^{​The GSS began to separate the data by level (master’s or doctorate) in 2017.The GSS began to separate the data by level (master’s or doctorate) in 2017.} Put another way, in 2021, 82% of S&E graduate students supported by the federal government were doctoral students (NCSES GSS 2021: Table 1-6). In all S&E fields, the federal government supported a higher percentage of doctoral students than master’s students (NCSES GSS 2021: Table 3-1).

NSF (21,743) and NIH (23,088) supported the most graduate students in 2021. Together, these two agencies supported 54% of federally supported graduate students (NCSES GSS 2021: Table 1-7 and Table 3-3). Other agencies supporting significant numbers of S&E graduate students in 2021 were DOD (9,575), the Department of Energy (DOE) (6,016), and USDA (3,244); other agencies were HHS (excluding NIH) (2,866) and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) (2,211) (Figure URD-23). RAs were the primary mechanism that the federal government used to fund graduate students. Among full-time S&E graduate students primarily funded by the federal government in 2021, 69% received RAs, followed by fellowships (13%) and traineeships (7%).^{​Data are from a special tabulation of NCSES (GSS 2021).Data are from a special tabulation of NCSES (GSS 2021).}

The largest numbers of federally supported S&E graduate students were in engineering (25,302), biological and biomedical sciences (20,832), and physical sciences (11,216). Together, these fields contained around 45% of total S&E graduate students but 69% of federally supported students (NCSES GSS 2021: Table 3-1). NSF supported substantial numbers of full-time graduate students across different fields, whereas over 68% of those supported by NIH were in biological and biomedical sciences and health. Of the full-time graduate students funded by DOD, 56% studied engineering, and more than 90% funded by DOE were in physical sciences and engineering (Figure URD-24).

The federal government supported more than half (51%, or 32,429) of S&E postdocs in 2021 (NCSES GSS 2021: Table 3-2). Research grants and contracts continue to be the primary mechanisms the federal government uses to fund postdocs. Among postdocs primarily funded by the federal government in 2021, 81% were funded by research grants, followed by traineeships (8%) and fellowships (7%), with the remainder funded by other mechanisms.^{​Data are from a special tabulation of NCSES (GSS 2021).Data are from a special tabulation of NCSES (GSS 2021).} The largest numbers of federally supported postdocs were in biological and biomedical sciences (11,372), clinical medicine (7,529), and engineering (4,235). These fields contained around 70% of total postdocs and around the same proportion of those funded by the federal government (NCSES GSS 2021: Table 3-2).

NIH supported the most postdocs of any federal agency (19,079) in 2021 (NCSES GSS 2021: Table 3-4). Other agencies supporting considerable numbers of postdocs included NSF (3,820), DOD (2,344), and DOE (2,228). In total, these four agencies accounted for 85% of federally supported postdocs. Federal agencies funded postdocs across fields in a manner consistent with their missions (NCSES GSS 2021: Table 3-4). NSF supported postdocs across numerous fields. The majority (80%) of postdocs supported by NIH were in biological and biomedical sciences or in clinical medicine. DOD funded postdocs primarily in engineering (40%) and physical sciences (17%), as did DOE (32% in engineering, 49% in physical sciences).

In 2021, institutions supported 39% of full-time S&E graduate students (212,869), more than any other source except self-support (NCSES GSS 2021: Table 3-1).^{​For GSS, “institutional” support includes support from academic institutions and from state and local government.For GSS, “institutional” support includes support from academic institutions and from state and local government.} Institutions supported 22% of master’s students (63,468) and 58% of doctoral students (149,401). Thus, around 70% of S&E graduate students supported by institutions were doctoral students. Institutions mainly used TAs to support graduate students; 38% of institutionally funded graduate students in 2021 had TAs. RAs (25%) and fellowships (17%) accounted for most of the rest.^{​Data are from a special tabulation of NCSES (GSS 2021).Data are from a special tabulation of NCSES (GSS 2021).}

The largest numbers of institutionally supported full-time graduate students were in engineering (44,890), biological and biomedical sciences (36,255), and social sciences (31,570). Across all fields and levels, institutions supported more students than the federal government did. For full-time S&E doctoral students, institutions supported higher numbers than any other source across fields (NCSES GSS 2021: Table 3-1). The percentage of full-time doctoral students supported by institutions varied from just under half for engineering to 80% for mathematics and statistics.

Institutions funded 22% of academic postdocs (13,633) in 2021 (NCSES GSS 2021: Table 3-2). The largest numbers of institutionally funded postdocs were in biological and biomedical sciences (3,408), clinical medicine (3,210), and engineering (1,923). In all broad fields except mathematics and statistics and social sciences, fewer postdocs received institutional support than federal support. In 2021, 37% of postdocs supported by institutions were funded from research grants, 13% were funded from fellowships, and 50% received support from traineeships and other sources.^{​Data are from a special tabulation of NCSES (GSS 2021).Data are from a special tabulation of NCSES (GSS 2021).}

Various nonfederal domestic sources, including businesses and nonprofits, supported around 4% of S&E graduate students in 2021, including about 2% of master’s students (4,908) and 6% of doctoral students (14,107) (NCSES GSS 2021: Table 3-1). These sources supported the largest numbers of graduate students in engineering (6,841), biological and biomedical sciences (3,519), physical sciences (1,540), and computer and information sciences (1,510). The proportion of graduate students primarily supported by nonfederal domestic sources was largest in agricultural sciences (10%).

Nonfederal domestic sources supported 15% of total S&E postdocs (9,537) and between 10% and 21% of postdocs across fields (NCSES GSS 2021: Table 3-2). These sources funded the most postdocs in biological and biomedical sciences (2,925), clinical medicine (2,507), and engineering (1,352).

In 2021, no more than 1% of S&E graduate students were supported by foreign sources, including around 1,000 master’s students (0.3%) and 2,580 doctoral students (1%). Foreign sources supported the most students in engineering (1,483) (NCSES GSS 2021: Table 3-1). They also supported around 2% of academic postdocs (1,354). Most of these postdocs were in clinical medicine (420), biological and biomedical sciences (380), and engineering (262) (NCSES GSS 2021: Table 3-2).