International Comparisons of S&E Higher Education

This section provides data on the U.S. position in higher education within a global context. Key topics include educational attainment in the overall population and trends in S&E first university and doctoral degree awards among the top degree-producing countries. Although the United States is among the most highly educated countries with respect to the share of its population with at least a bachelor’s degree, it is below average within the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) with respect to advanced degree attainment. Furthermore, over the last two decades, the share of younger adults with postsecondary education increased faster in nearly all other advanced economies than it did in the United States.

India and China have increased S&E degree production more rapidly in the past decade than have many OECD member countries. India awards the highest number of S&E first university degrees, and China awards the most S&E doctorates, followed closely by the United States. Despite their recent gains in the number of S&E degrees awarded, India and China measure far lower than the United States and other advanced economies in the share of their young adult populations (20–34 years old) that earn postsecondary S&E degrees. A higher share of S&E degrees in China is awarded in engineering compared to other countries, whereas degrees in the United States are more focused in the social and behavioral sciences.

Educational Attainment

Educational attainment, measured as the proportion of a population that has reached a specific level of education, is often used as a proxy for human capital and the skill levels associated with that level of study (OECD 2022a). The United States ranks highly on educational attainment at the bachelor’s level: 39.5% of the 25- to 64-year-old population had a bachelor’s degree or higher in 2021, compared to the OECD average of 34.0% (Figure HED-28). However, educational attainment varies greatly by demographic group and by region in the United States. For example, in 2019, bachelor’s degree holders ranged from a high of 70.4% of individuals 25–44 years old in the District Columbia to a low of 22.7% in Mississippi (NSB 2022a: State Indicator S-30). The United States ranks comparatively lower internationally in educational attainment with respect to advanced degrees. In 2021, 14.4% of U.S. 25- to 64-year-olds had attained a master’s degree or higher, below the OECD average of 15.1% (Figure HED-28).

Educational attainment of the 25- to 64-year-old population, by level of education and region, country, or economy: 2021
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Educational attainment of the 25- to 64-year-old population, by level of education and region, country, or economy: 2021

(Percent)
Region, country, or economy Master's degree or higher Bachelor's degree or higher
Luxembourg 31.2 46.3
Lithuania 15.3 45.3
Switzerland 21.0 45.0
Ireland 15.8 44.7
Belgium 19.9 44.0
United Kingdom 14.9 41.3
Netherlands 17.2 40.7
United States 14.4 39.5
Iceland 17.2 38.9
Israel 14.4 38.7
Australia 10.4 38.6
South Korea 4.4 37.4
Sweden 17.7 37.1
Denmark 16.0 37.0
New Zealand 6.7 36.0
Norway 14.8 35.9
Canada 11.4 35.6
Estonia 21.4 35.4
Latvia 18.9 34.9
Finland 16.9 34.4
Japan NA 34.2
OECD average 15.1 34.0
Greece 8.7 34.0
Poland 25.6 33.1
Slovenia 23.0 32.1
Portugal 22.1 30.9
Germany 13.0 30.6
Spain 17.1 28.3
Hungary 14.2 28.2
Slovakia 24.1 27.7
Czechia 19.8 26.4
France 14.7 26.3
Argentina 1.4 24.8
Colombia NA 22.5
Chile (2020) 2.2 21.1
Brazil 1.1 20.7
Italy 14.7 19.9
Mexico 1.9 19.9
Austria 14.7 19.6
Turkey 2.2 17.9
Costa Rica 2.9 17.8
India (2020) 3.7 12.9
Indonesia 5.3 10.3
China (2020) 1.1 8.9
South Africa (2020) 0.9 7.9

OECD = Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.

Note(s):

Data include degrees at International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) 2011 levels 6 (bachelor's or equivalent), 7 (master's or equivalent), and 8 (doctorate or equivalent). Educational attainment data at the master’s degree or higher level are not available for Colombia and Japan.

Source(s):

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Education at a Glance 2022: OECD Indicators (2022).

Science and Engineering Indicators

In recent years, educational attainment has increased faster in other advanced economies than it has in the United States. From 2000 to 2021, the share of 25- to 34-year-olds with tertiary education (roughly speaking, an associate’s degree or higher) increased by 13 percentage points in the United States, compared to an average increase of 21 percentage points across OECD member countries (OECD 2022a). The size of the increase in the United States during this period was smaller than the increase experienced in nearly all other OECD countries. The share of younger adults (25–34 years old) with at least a bachelor’s degree in the United States is slightly larger than the share for 25- to 64-year-olds; this contrasts with many other OECD countries, wherein this younger cohort is substantially more educated than the overall working-age population (NSB 2022b).

S&E First University Degrees

First university degrees are used in international comparisons to accommodate differences between national higher education systems. First university degrees are usually equivalent to bachelor’s degrees, but they also include “long first degrees” awarded by some countries that are comparable to master’s degrees (for more information, see the Glossary section, and see the Technical Appendix). India awarded 2.5 million S&E first university degrees in 2020, followed by China (2.0 million) and then by the United States (900,000) (Figure HED-29). On a percentage basis, Mexico and Turkey experienced the most rapid growth in S&E first university degree awards from 2011 to 2020. However, in contrast to S&E first university degrees, these countries are not among the top producers of S&E doctoral degrees (see the following section S&E Doctoral Degrees).

S&E first university degrees awarded, by selected country: 2011–20
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S&E first university degrees awarded, by selected country: 2011–20

(Number)
Year Brazil China France Germany India Japan Mexico South Korea Turkey United Kingdom United States
2011 201,636 1,387,374 78,294 152,872 1,507,992 NA 159,873 135,254 84,061 143,176 653,341
2012 209,920 1,500,689 81,209 155,223 1,734,087 NA 170,472 134,600 98,013 150,787 687,221
2013 208,304 1,559,840 80,800 157,719 1,782,542 NA 180,755 130,533 99,415 160,363 712,383
2014 219,525 1,653,565 80,885 158,834 1,916,704 173,283 189,782 130,648 128,672 180,340 733,698
2015 235,267 1,716,413 127,138 161,118 2,111,708 180,888 194,886 139,467 139,684 165,793 751,195
2016 262,301 1,772,830 129,028 155,534 2,340,790 178,891 221,456 144,725 146,128 169,832 768,291
2017 282,278 1,802,760 81,736 151,585 2,342,382 173,573 231,571 145,567 149,730 166,364 790,324
2018 314,863 1,821,950 128,197 146,831 2,318,604 172,899 241,291 139,111 149,986 179,822 811,195
2019 313,101 1,855,367 133,353 184,765 2,368,930 180,160 322,744 137,862 161,512 184,524 830,601
2020 303,016 1,975,602 143,286 165,929 2,467,873 177,608 326,468 140,499 205,405 182,531 898,973
Note(s):

To facilitate international comparison, data for the United States are those reported to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development; these data vary from the National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics classification of fields presented in other sections of the report. Data for Japan are not available prior to 2014.

Source(s):

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Education at a Glance; National Bureau of Statistics of China, China Statistical Yearbook; People's Republic of China, Ministry of Education data; Government of India, Ministry of Education, Department of Higher Education, All India Survey on Higher Education.

Science and Engineering Indicators

The proportion of all first university degrees awarded in S&E fields varies across the top degree-producing countries, from a high of 49% in Mexico to a low of 24% in Brazil in 2020 (Figure HED-30). Engineering is generally the most popular broad S&E degree field, but the share varies considerably by country. For example, engineering accounted for 33% of all first university degrees in China in 2020. In contrast, engineering degrees were less common in the United Kingdom and the United States, where they accounted for 9% and 8% of first university degrees, respectively. These two countries were also among the most concentrated in the social and behavioral sciences: in 2020, the United Kingdom awarded 18% of first university degrees in this broad field, and the United States awarded 19%, surpassed only by Mexico (20%).

First university degrees awarded, by S&E field and selected country: 2020
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First university degrees awarded, by S&E field and selected country: 2020

(Percent)
Country Engineering Social and behavioral sciences Physical and biological sciences and mathematics and statistics Computer sciences Agricultural sciences
Mexico 19.9 19.9 2.4 4.9 2.3
China 32.8 5.9 6.5 NA 1.7
United Kingdom 8.9 17.8 12.3 4.6 0.9
United States 7.9 19.4 10.6 5.1 1.1
Germany 23.3 5.8 5.3 4.4 1.8
South Korea 20.8 7.1 5.7 5.0 1.5
France 13.8 8.9 8.5 4.1 1.1
Turkey 13.9 17.6 2.3 1.0 1.3
India 12.0 3.8 16.0 3.0 0.9
Japan 14.5 9.6 3.0 NA 3.0
Brazil 11.8 4.5 1.0 4.0 2.4
Note(s):

Computer sciences is included under engineering for China and Japan. To facilitate international comparison, data for the United States are those reported to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development; these data vary from the National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics classification of fields presented in other sections of the report.

Source(s):

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Education at a Glance; People's Republic of China, Ministry of Education data; Government of India, Ministry of Education, Department of Higher Education, All India Survey on Higher Education.

Science and Engineering Indicators

S&E Doctoral Degrees

China awarded the highest number of S&E doctoral degrees (43,000) in 2020, followed closely by the United States (42,000), which China surpassed in 2019 (Figure HED-31). Given the proximity of the United States and China on this indicator, additional discussion is provided in the sidebar Considerations for International Comparisons of S&E Doctoral Degrees. After experiencing rapid growth in the mid-2010s, the number of S&E doctorates awarded in India dropped to 17,000 in 2020, falling slightly below the number awarded by the United Kingdom. Other top producers of S&E doctoral degrees include Germany (14,000), Brazil (9,000), South Korea and France (about 8,000 each), and Japan (7,000). Among these countries, South Korea increased S&E doctoral degree production at the fastest rate (49%) from 2011 to 2020.

S&E doctoral degrees awarded, by selected country: 2011–20
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S&E doctoral degrees awarded, by selected country: 2011–20

(Number)
Year Brazil China France Germany India Japan South Korea United Kingdom United States
2011 NA 32,208 9,466 13,281 14,498 NA 5,454 11,859 35,113
2012 NA 32,331 9,692 13,666 15,730 NA 5,713 12,103 36,356
2013 NA 33,490 9,731 14,936 15,786 NA 5,963 14,732 37,951
2014 9,124 34,103 10,023 14,912 14,163 7,357 6,087 14,271 39,682
2015 9,414 34,440 10,020 15,957 16,216 7,540 6,240 15,337 39,933
2016 10,469 35,147 9,564 15,871 19,001 7,391 6,689 15,757 39,710
2017 10,752 37,506 9,755 15,761 24,383 6,745 6,903 16,372 40,319
2018 11,365 39,768 8,987 15,061 28,394 6,754 7,077 17,366 41,071
2019 11,817 41,890 8,683 15,309 26,443 6,646 7,504 17,438 41,333
2020 9,492 43,399 7,691 14,092 16,968 6,506 8,125 17,312 41,701
Note(s):

To facilitate international comparison, data for the United States are those reported to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, which vary from the National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics classification of fields presented in other sections of the report. Data for Brazil and Japan are not available prior to 2014.

Source(s):

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Education at a Glance; National Bureau of Statistics of China, China Statistical Yearbook; People's Republic of China, Ministry of Education data; Government of India, Ministry of Education, Department of Higher Education, All India Survey on Higher Education.

Science and Engineering Indicators

For most of the top producers of S&E doctoral degrees, more than half of all doctoral degrees awarded in 2020 were in S&E fields (Figure HED-32). Degrees in physical and biological sciences and mathematics and statistics accounted for the largest share of doctoral degrees in S&E fields in most of these countries. However, engineering degrees were more common in East Asian countries, especially China, where 36% of all doctorates were awarded in engineering in 2020. Doctoral degrees in computer sciences and agricultural sciences typically account for the lowest shares of S&E degrees, but agricultural sciences were comparatively more common in Brazil (10% of all doctorates awarded in 2020) and India (8%).

Doctoral degrees awarded, by S&E field and selected country: 2020
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Doctoral degrees awarded, by S&E field and selected country: 2020

(Percent)
Country Physical and biological sciences and mathematics and statistics Engineering Social and behavioral sciences Computer sciences Agricultural sciences
India 23.6 18.7 14.6 1.7 7.8
China 21.1 36.4 3.3 NA 4.8
France 34.0 14.4 10.1 5.3 1.4
United Kingdom 26.8 14.5 14.8 4.0 0.8
United States 23.2 15.6 13.1 3.3 1.5
Germany 28.9 12.9 5.6 3.3 3.1
South Korea 12.9 26.4 5.3 3.3 2.3
Brazil 13.2 14.4 7.5 1.8 10.4
Japan 12.5 20.1 3.5 NA 5.7
Note(s):

Computer sciences is included under engineering for China and Japan. To facilitate international comparison, data for the United States are those reported to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, which vary from the National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics classification of fields presented in other sections of the report.

Source(s):

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Education at a Glance; People's Republic of China, Ministry of Education data; Government of India, Ministry of Education, Department of Higher Education, All India Survey on Higher Education.

Science and Engineering Indicators

Considerations for International Comparisons of S&E Doctoral Degrees

S&E Degree Production Intensity

Adjusting S&E degree awards relative to national population levels provides useful context when comparing S&E higher education across nations of varying sizes. S&E degree production intensity indicates the prevalence of S&E higher education among the portion of a country’s population in the age range most commonly pursuing postsecondary education. It is defined here as the number of S&E degrees awarded per 100,000 individuals ages 20–34 years old, including degrees awarded to international students. China and India both award more S&E first university degrees than the United States (Figure HED-29), yet they measure substantially lower in terms of S&E degree production intensity (Figure HED-33). The United States awarded over 1,300 S&E first university degrees per 100,000 20- to 34-year-olds in 2020, about twice the rate of China and India. The United States measures comparably to the United Kingdom and Germany, other top sources of S&E human capital, on this metric.

S&E degrees awarded per 100,000 of the 20- to 34-year-old population, by selected country: 2011–20
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S&E degrees awarded per 100,000 of the 20- to 34-year-old population, by selected country: 2011–20

(Number)
Year China India United States Germany United Kingdom
2011 424.0 473.4 1,015.6 1,022.7 1,125.9
2012 456.5 535.6 1,051.5 1,031.6 1,169.5
2013 473.1 541.8 1,076.1 1,043.4 1,230.4
2014 502.0 573.9 1,098.4 1,047.9 1,375.2
2015 523.9 623.5 1,118.5 1,063.0 1,261.7
2016 546.3 682.3 1,139.2 1,026.6 1,291.2
2017 564.3 674.5 1,167.1 999.5 1,263.6
2018 579.6 660.4 1,193.9 967.5 1,365.5
2019 599.4 668.4 1,219.3 1,218.7 1,403.0
2020 650.0 689.8 1,316.9 1,097.7 1,393.2
(Number)
Year China India United States Germany United Kingdom
2011 9.8 4.6 54.6 88.9 93.3
2012 9.8 4.9 55.6 90.8 93.9
2013 10.2 4.8 57.3 98.8 113.0
2014 10.4 4.2 59.4 98.4 108.8
2015 10.5 4.8 59.5 105.3 116.7
2016 10.8 5.5 58.9 104.8 119.8
2017 11.7 7.0 59.5 103.9 124.4
2018 12.7 8.1 60.4 99.2 131.9
2019 13.5 7.5 60.7 101.0 132.6
2020 14.3 4.7 61.1 93.2 132.1
Note(s):

Figure includes the top five countries by S&E doctorates awarded in 2020. To facilitate international comparison, data for the United States are those reported to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, which vary from the National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics classification of fields presented in other sections of the report.

Source(s):

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Education at a Glance; National Bureau of Statistics of China, China Statistical Yearbook; People's Republic of China, Ministry of Education data; Government of India, Ministry of Education, Department of Higher Education, All India Survey on Higher Education; United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, World Population Prospects 2022 (2022).

Science and Engineering Indicators

Comparisons of S&E degree production intensity show considerable differences among top degree-producing nations at the doctoral level (Figure HED-33). The United Kingdom has the highest degree production intensity, awarding 132 S&E doctoral degrees per 100,000 individuals ages 20–34 years old in 2020, followed by Germany (93) and then the United States (61). Although China and India have both increased their number of S&E degrees awarded over the last decade, these countries remain far eclipsed by advanced economies in S&E doctoral degree production intensity. For example, in 2020 China awarded 14 S&E doctoral degrees per 100,000 20- to 34-year-olds and India awarded 5 S&E doctoral degrees, or about 23% and 8%, respectively, of the degree production intensity of the United States.