Undergraduate and graduate students and postdoctoral researchers (postdocs) are vital to the academic R&D enterprise and constitute a significant portion of the individuals funded by research grants at many institutions (IRIS 2021). Education and training often go hand-in-hand with R&D performance at colleges and universities, and investments made by the federal government, academic institutions, and other funders in the education and training of S&E students and postdocs relate closely to their investments in academic R&D. For example, around 70% of full-time S&E graduate students primarily funded by the federal government in 2019 received research assistantships (RAs), which come from research grants. More than 80% of federally funded postdocs were paid through research grants. Additionally, the majority of S&E graduate students and postdocs are affiliated with the same universities that perform most of the nation’s academic R&D (NCSES GSS 2019: Table 5-3).^{​For example, in 2019 two-thirds of S&E graduate students, including 55% of master’s students and 82% of doctoral students, were at Carnegie very high research doctoral universities.For example, in 2019 two-thirds of S&E graduate students, including 55% of master’s students and 82% of doctoral students, were at Carnegie very high research doctoral universities.}

Salaries, wages, and fringe benefits make up the largest component of academic R&D direct costs, and this section of the report adds detail to this component. The available data focus on financial support for graduate students and postdocs. Additional aspects of graduate study, including degrees by field and debt, are available in the forthcoming Indicators 2022 report "Higher Education in Science and Engineering." Likewise, other aspects of the postdoctoral labor force, including salaries and demographics, can be found in the Indicators 2022 report “The STEM Labor Force of Today: Scientists, Engineers, and Skilled Technical Workers.” Comprehensive data on sources of support for undergraduates participating in research are not available. For information on how the COVID-19 pandemic affected academic R&D, see sidebar COVID-19 and Academic R&D.

Graduate students’ sources of financial support depended on their level of study.^{​This report discusses sources and mechanisms of graduate student funding. Funding sources include federal, institutional, and personal or self-support, among others. Funding mechanisms include assistantships, fellowships, and traineeships, among others.This report discusses sources and mechanisms of graduate student funding. Funding sources include federal, institutional, and personal or self-support, among others. Funding mechanisms include assistantships, fellowships, and traineeships, among others.} Master’s students were largely self-supporting, whereas only a small minority of doctoral students self-financed.^{​Starting with 2017, the Survey of Graduate Students and Postdoctorates in Science and Engineering (GSS) collects data separately for master’s and doctoral students. Analyses using GSS data in this report include health fields unless otherwise specified.Starting with 2017, the Survey of Graduate Students and Postdoctorates in Science and Engineering (GSS) collects data separately for master’s and doctoral students. Analyses using GSS data in this report include health fields unless otherwise specified.} In 2019, around two-thirds of S&E master’s students paid for their graduate program using personal sources (NCSES GSS 2019: Table 3-1); by contrast, less than 10% of doctoral students did so.^{​Personal sources include loans (including federal loans) or personal or family financial contributions.Personal sources include loans (including federal loans) or personal or family financial contributions.} These differences generally held across all S&E fields.

Other main sources of support for graduate students included academic institutions (where a student is enrolled) and the federal government. Academic institutions were the primary source of support for 24% of master’s students and 59% of doctoral students. Institutional support includes tuition waivers and stipends. The federal government was the primary source of support for 5% of master’s students and a quarter of doctoral students. Federal support includes financial support provided by federal agencies but excludes federally guaranteed student loans.

Financial support for graduate students may be delivered through various mechanisms, including RAs, teaching assistantships (TAs), and fellowships.^{​In 2019, these were the most common funding mechanisms for S&E doctoral students (38% received RAs, 26% TAs, and 15% fellowships) (NCSES GSS 2019: Table 3-5).In 2019, these were the most common funding mechanisms for S&E doctoral students (38% received RAs, 26% TAs, and 15% fellowships) (NCSES GSS 2019: Table 3-5).} TAs and fellowships are mainly institutionally funded, whereas nearly half of RAs are funded through federal academic research grants.

Most doctoral students are supported by multiple sources or mechanisms during graduate school, even in a single academic year. Patterns of support varied by field (Figure URD-20; NCSES GSS 2019: Table 3-5) and the type of institution attended. For example, full-time S&E graduate students from the Carnegie very high research doctoral universities were less likely to self-support than those who attended other types of institutions. Even among this group of institutions, however, public and private universities used funding mechanisms differently.

Funding mechanisms also vary by demographic groups (Figure URD-21; NCSES SED 2019: Table 35). Overall, among U.S. citizens and permanent residents who earned S&E doctorates between 2015 and 2019, men (33%) were more likely to be supported by RAs than women (25%), whereas women (17%) were more likely to self-support than men (11%). Women (16%) and men (17%) were around equally likely to be supported by TAs. Asians (35%) and Whites (32%) were more likely to have primary RA, traineeship, or internship support than doctoral recipients from underrepresented minority groups. Twenty-one percent of Hispanics or Latinos, 16% of Blacks or African Americans, and 12% of American Indians or Alaska Natives who earned S&E doctorates between 2015 and 2019 had RAs, traineeships, or internships as their primary source of financial support (NCSES WMPD 2021: Table 7-23.) Additionally, Blacks or African Americans (30%) and American Indians or Alaska Natives (22%) were more likely to self-support than other groups.

Doctorate recipients who are temporary visa holders exhibit different patterns of support than U.S. citizens and permanent residents. Overall, including non-S&E fields, temporary visa holders are more likely to hold RAs or traineeships, less likely to hold fellowships or use their own resources, and around equally likely to be supported by a TA. However, the patterns vary between broad fields of study (NCSES SED 2019: Table 35).

To some extent, demographic differences in support mechanisms related to differences between groups in fields studied and institutions attended. However, certain patterns held across fields. For example, Black doctorate recipients were more likely than those from other groups to use personal sources of funding in almost every S&E field for which data were available (NCSES WMPD 2021: Table 7-23).

Almost all U.S. academic postdoctoral appointments were concentrated at Carnegie very high research doctoral universities (83%), high research doctoral universities (5%), and medical schools and centers (10%) (NCSES GSS 2019: Table 5-3). Just over half of postdocs (53%) were at public institutions (NCSES GSS 2019: Table 5-1). Postdoctoral appointments were concentrated in the biological and biomedical sciences and health sciences (62% in 2019: NCSES GSS 2019: Table 3-2).^{​These calculations exclude appointments in natural resources and conservation and in multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary studies.These calculations exclude appointments in natural resources and conservation and in multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary studies.} Earth and physical sciences (13%) and engineering (12%) constituted most of the remainder.

In 2019, the federal government funded around half of all postdocs, down from around 60% in 2009 (NCSES GSS 2009: Table 70). The federal government funded 40% of postdocs or more in all fields except mathematics and statistics (30%) and social sciences (22%). In 2019, institutions funded around a quarter of all postdocs and roughly this amount in most fields save mathematics and statistics (50%) and social sciences (44%).^{​The data tables from 2009 do not separate out nonfederal sources of support for postdocs.The data tables from 2009 do not separate out nonfederal sources of support for postdocs.} Other domestic sources funded 15% of postdocs, and foreign sources around 2%.

Most postdocs (60%), including 81% of those funded by the federal government, were funded through research grants. Postdocs were also funded through fellowships (11%), traineeships (5%), and other mechanisms of support (23%) (NCSES GSS 2019: Table 3-6).

Federal support for S&E graduate students and postdocs reflects a continuation of the historic partnership between the federal government and the nation’s research universities to integrate the performance of basic scientific research and the education and training of the next generation of scientists and engineers (National Research Council 2012). It is an indicator of the strength of the university–government partnership.

The proportion of individuals in different roles (e.g., students, postdocs, faculty, staff) supported varies by agency.^{​Data on this variation are produced by IRIS for its member universities.Data on this variation are produced by IRIS for its member universities.} For example, in 2019, NIH supported roughly equal numbers of graduate students (21,000) and postdocs (19,500), whereas NSF supported far more graduate students (21,800) than postdocs (3,600).

The federal government supported 15% of full-time S&E graduate students (around 74,000) in 2019 (NCSES GSS 2019: Table 1-6), down from nearly 21% (84,000) in 2004. This overall figure masks differences in federal support for master’s students (about 11,500, or 5%) and doctoral students (about 62,000, or 25%). Put another way, in 2019, 84% of S&E graduate students supported by the federal government were doctoral students (NCSES GSS 2019: Table 3-1). This pattern is true for all S&E fields with the federal government supporting a higher percentage of doctoral students than master’s students (NCSES GSS 2019: Table 3-1).

The largest numbers of federally supported graduate students were in engineering (24,000), biological and biomedical sciences (18,500), and earth and physical sciences (13,000). Together, these fields contained around half of total graduate students but three-quarters of federally supported students (NCSES GSS 2019: Table 3-1).

NSF (22,000) and NIH (21,000) supported the most graduate students in 2019. Together, these two agencies supported nearly 60% of federally supported graduate students (NCSES GSS 2019: Table 1-7). Other agencies supporting substantial numbers of S&E graduate students in 2019 were DOD (8,500), DOE (5,100), and USDA (2,600); additional agencies were HHS (excluding NIH, 2,500) and NASA (2,100) (see Figure URD-22).

In their support patterns across fields, agencies took on portfolios consistent with their missions (Figure URD-23, NCSES GSS 2019: Table 3-3). NSF supported substantial numbers of students across a range of fields, whereas over 60% of those supported by NIH were in biological and biomedical sciences. Sixty percent of the students funded by DOD studied engineering, and more than 90% funded by DOE were in earth and physical sciences and engineering.

RAs were the primary mechanism the federal government used to fund graduate students. Among full-time S&E graduate students primarily funded by the federal government in 2019, 71% received RAs, followed by fellowships (12%) and traineeships (8%).

The federal government supported half (49%, around 32,500) of S&E postdocs in 2019 (NCSES GSS 2019: Table 3-2). The largest numbers of federally supported postdocs were in biological and biomedical sciences (12,000), clinical medicine (7,500), and earth and physical sciences (5,000). These fields contained around three-quarters of total postdocs and around the same proportion of those funded by the federal government (NCSES GSS 2019: Table 3-2).

NIH supported the most postdocs in 2019: around 19,500 (60% of total federally supported postdocs) (NCSES GSS 2019: Table 3-4). Other agencies supporting postdocs included NSF (3,600), DOD (2,400), and DOE (2,000). In total, these four agencies account for 85% of federally supported postdocs.

As with their support of graduate students, agencies funded postdocs across fields in a manner consistent with their missions (NCSES GSS 2019: Table 3-4). NSF supported postdocs across a range of fields. Eighty percent of postdocs supported by NIH were in biological and biomedical sciences or clinical medicine. DOD funded postdocs primarily in engineering (40%) and earth and physical sciences (19%), as did DOE (32% in engineering, and 53% in earth and physical sciences).

RAs continue to be the primary mechanism the federal government uses to fund postdocs. Among postdocs primarily funded by the federal government in 2019, 81% received RAs, followed by fellowships and traineeships (8% each), with the remainder funded by other mechanisms.

In 2019, institutions supported 41% of full-time S&E graduate students (around 206,000), more than any other source including self-support (NCSES GSS 2019: Table 3-1); this is a long-standing trend.^{​For GSS, “institutional” support includes from academic institutions and from state and local government.For GSS, “institutional” support includes from academic institutions and from state and local government.} Institutions supported nearly a quarter of master’s students (60,000) and nearly 60% of doctoral students (146,000). Put another way, around 70% of S&E graduate students supported by institutions were doctoral students.

The largest numbers of institutionally supported graduate students were in engineering (44,000), biological and biomedical sciences (34,000), and social sciences (33,000). Across fields and levels, institutions supported more students than the federal government. For full-time S&E doctoral students, institutions supported higher numbers than any other source across fields (Figure URD-24). The percentage of full-time doctoral students supported by institutions varied from just under half for engineering to 80% for mathematics and statistics (NCSES GSS 2019: Table 3-1).

Institutions mainly used TAs to support graduate students; 42% of institutionally funded graduate students in 2019 had TAs. RAs (around a quarter) and fellowships (17%) accounted for most of the rest.

Institutions funded around a quarter of academic postdocs (about 15,500) in 2019 (NCSES GSS 2019: Table 3-2). The largest numbers of institutionally funded postdocs were in biological and biomedical sciences (4,000), clinical medicine (4,000), and engineering (2,000). Institutions funded fewer postdocs than did the federal government for all broad fields except mathematics and statistics and social sciences. Institutions mainly funded postdocs through other support (around half) and RAs (around a third).

Other nonfederal domestic sources, including businesses and nonprofits, supported around 4% of S&E graduate students in 2019, including about 2% of master’s students (4,900) and 6% of doctoral students (14,000) (NCSES GSS 2019: Table 3-1). These sources supported the largest numbers of students in engineering (7,400), biological and biomedical sciences (3,300), and earth and physical sciences (2,000). They funded the largest percentages of total students in agricultural sciences (12%), engineering (6%), and natural resources and conservation (5%).

Nonfederal domestic sources supported 15% of total S&E postdocs (10,000) and between 8% and 18% of postdocs across fields (NCSES GSS 2019: Table 3-2). These sources funded the most postdocs in biological and biomedical sciences (3,300), clinical medicine (2,600), and engineering (1,400).

In 2019, less than 1% of S&E graduate students were supported by foreign sources, including around 1,500 master’s students (0.6%) and 3,200 doctoral students (1.3%). Foreign sources funded less than 3% of students across degree levels and fields. They supported the most students in engineering (2,000) (NCSES GSS 2019: Table 3-1).

Foreign sources also supported around 2.5% of academic postdocs (1,600). Most of these were in clinical medicine (400), biological and biomedical sciences (400), and engineering (300) (NCSES GSS 2019: Table 3-2).