Report

Postgraduation trends

A graduate’s first position after earning the doctoral degree may reflect broad economic conditions and can shape later career opportunities, earnings, and choices. Over the longer term, the early career patterns of doctorate recipients may influence the decisions of future students considering careers as scientists, engineers, scholars, and researchers.

Job market

At any given time, the job market for new doctorate recipients will be better in some fields of study than in others. Though all fields tend to follow patterns that generally reflect overall trends in economic conditions, definite commitments at graduation are likely to be influenced by many factors. In general, doctorate recipients in S&E fields tend to have robust postgraduation career prospects. The proportions of 2021 doctorate recipients in S&E with definite commitments at graduation, including postdoctoral study positions (postdocs), ranged from 68% in engineering to 79% in psychology. Proportions were highest in computer and information sciences and psychology (78% and 79%, respectively). In computer and information sciences, this proportion peaked in 2021; in psychology, this proportion remains close to its all-time high in 2020 (figure 20).

In all other S&E fields, the proportion of doctorate recipients with definite commitments was lower compared to 20 years ago. The largest decline in this period was in physical sciences (from 77% in 2001 to 71% in 2021), engineering (from 73% to 68%), and biological and biomedical sciences (from 73% to 69%).

Compared to 2019, before the pandemic started, the proportion of doctorate recipients with definite commitments in 2021 increased in all fields except in mathematics and statistics and in social sciences, which declined by 3.2 and 1.3 percentage points, respectively. The largest increases in this proportion between 2019 and 2021 were in geosciences, atmospheric sciences, and ocean sciences (5 percentage points), biological and biomedical sciences (4 percentage points), and physical sciences (4 percentage points). (For more details on the effects of the pandemic on definite commitments, see section “Special focus: COVID-19 pandemic impacts on doctorate recipients.”)

In non-S&E fields, the proportion of doctorate recipients reporting definite commitments in 2021 was lower when compared to 2001 in all fields (figure 21). These fields had recovered from lows in 2014–16 but declined again after 2019 except in humanities and arts, where the proportion remained flat at about 59%.

Definite commitments among doctorate recipients, by S&E broad field: 2001–21
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Definite commitments among doctorate recipients, by S&E broad field: 2001–21

(Percent)
Year Psychology Health sciences Social sciences Biological and biomedical sciences Agricultural sciences and natural resources
2001 72.7 73.8 72.3 73.2 70.4
2002 72.6 79.2 71.9 73.5 66.5
2003 73.6 73.8 72.9 72.3 68.4
2004 72.2 72.2 70.2 71.7 67.4
2005 73.3 72.0 72.6 71.3 64.3
2006 75.2 74.7 73.3 71.5 67.8
2007 73.6 69.7 71.7 65.2 67.3
2008 73.8 72.6 71.8 64.3 64.5
2009 73.6 70.7 72.3 65.7 68.0
2010 72.9 70.0 70.2 65.0 65.1
2011 71.5 67.1 67.3 61.4 62.8
2012 72.8 68.3 68.3 61.2 63.7
2013 72.3 63.2 66.6 56.6 62.0
2014 72.3 63.8 66.2 56.5 58.5
2015 72.3 62.9 66.0 57.3 60.4
2016 72.3 62.8 64.0 58.8 58.9
2017 76.6 69.4 69.0 63.4 63.7
2018 77.9 69.3 70.9 64.5 65.2
2019 78.1 71.8 71.6 65.6 64.6
2020 80.4 70.2 72.3 65.3 68.0
2021 78.7 72.9 70.3 69.2 67.9
(Percent)
Year Computer and information sciences Geosciences, atmospheric sciences, and ocean sciences Mathematics and statistics Physical sciences Engineering
2001 75.1 75.5 75.4 77.4 72.5
2002 73.7 73.8 78.2 76.7 69.6
2003 72.8 74.9 74.7 73.2 64.6
2004 70.2 70.8 75.0 70.8 63.6
2005 72.9 75.0 76.1 71.1 64.6
2006 72.6 73.7 75.9 71.7 66.0
2007 72.7 76.5 73.3 70.9 64.7
2008 69.8 75.9 72.3 70.3 65.1
2009 72.8 75.5 71.4 71.4 66.8
2010 71.4 74.8 71.6 71.4 65.4
2011 69.0 75.1 70.7 67.8 64.1
2012 71.5 71.2 68.8 66.0 64.0
2013 68.7 67.6 68.5 63.2 59.5
2014 66.4 67.6 67.2 60.2 57.2
2015 69.8 69.2 69.7 59.3 58.2
2016 67.4 65.5 67.4 61.1 58.6
2017 74.3 68.6 70.9 64.8 64.1
2018 75.5 67.0 74.7 67.0 65.5
2019 77.2 68.6 75.3 67.2 67.0
2020 78.2 72.7 74.3 69.0 68.4
2021 78.3 73.2 72.1 70.7 67.8

S&E = science and engineering.

Note(s):

Shaded areas in the graphic reflect recessions that occurred between March 2001 and November 2001 and between December 2007 and June 2009 (http://www.nber.org/cycles/cyclesmain.html). Definite commitment refers to a doctorate recipient who is either returning to predoctoral employment or has signed a contract (or otherwise made a definite commitment) for employment or postdoctoral study in the coming year. Percentages are based on the number of doctorate recipients who responded to the postgraduation status item.

Source(s):

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics, Survey of Earned Doctorates, 2021. Related detailed table 2-1.

Definite commitments among doctorate recipients, by non-S&E broad field: 2001–21
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Definite commitments among doctorate recipients, by non-S&E broad field: 2001–21

(Percent)
Year Education Humanities and arts Business Other non-S&E fields
2001 74.3 65.9 83.8 72.9
2002 75.1 64.9 83.3 73.2
2003 75.7 64.2 83.3 72.3
2004 74.6 63.6 81.1 72.0
2005 73.9 64.5 81.9 70.2
2006 74.9 66.7 83.0 72.6
2007 71.6 62.8 77.9 68.2
2008 73.7 64.6 81.7 72.5
2009 71.6 63.2 80.3 72.6
2010 70.7 60.1 79.4 68.4
2011 68.1 57.3 77.6 65.6
2012 69.3 58.5 81.7 65.3
2013 65.8 55.0 76.3 65.7
2014 64.5 54.6 75.7 61.5
2015 64.5 54.8 77.7 63.7
2016 64.8 52.1 75.8 62.0
2017 69.5 57.2 80.8 67.7
2018 71.0 59.1 82.6 70.6
2019 72.7 58.5 82.0 70.0
2020 72.6 59.5 83.3 71.4
2021 71.1 59.0 78.7 65.1

S&E = science and engineering.

Note(s):

Shaded areas in the graphic reflect recessions that occurred between March 2001 and November 2001 and between December 2007 and June 2009 (http://www.nber.org/cycles/cyclesmain.html). Definite commitment refers to a doctorate recipient who is either returning to predoctoral employment or has signed a contract (or otherwise made a definite commitment) for employment or postdoctoral study in the coming year. Percentages are based on the number of doctorate recipients who responded to the postgraduation status item.

Source(s):

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics, Survey of Earned Doctorates, 2021. Related detailed table 2-1

First postgraduate position

Academic employment

In 2021, 36% of doctorate recipients with definite non-postdoc employment commitments in the United States reported that their principal job would be in academe, down from 48% in 2001.

The highest rates of non-postdoc academic employment commitments in 2021 were reported by doctorate recipients in non-S&E fields, particularly by those in humanities and arts and in other non-S&E fields (65% and 68%, respectively). The lowest rates were in engineering (12%) and in physical sciences (12%) (figure 22).

In the past 20 years, the rate of non-postdoc academic employment commitments declined in all S&E fields. The largest decline was in mathematics and statistics, from 59% in 2001 to 31% in 2021. Between 2019 and 2021, the rate of commitments for employment in academe declined in all S&E fields except in computer and information sciences (2 percentage-point increase) and in geosciences, atmospheric sciences, and ocean sciences (1 percentage-point increase). The largest declines in this period were in agricultural sciences and natural resources (10 percentage-point decline) and social sciences (9 percentage-point decline).

Definite non-postdoc employment commitments in academe in the United States, by broad field: 2001–21
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Definite non-postdoc employment commitments in academe in the United States, by broad field: 2001–21

(Percent)
Year Non-S&E fields Social sciences Health sciences Psychology Agricultural sciences and natural resources Biological and biomedical sciences
2001 63.7 65.9 59.3 37.5 42.7 36.4
2002 64.7 69.2 58.3 41.8 43.5 41.6
2003 64.1 69.3 60.6 41.6 41.0 45.4
2004 65.6 69.5 64.6 46.8 39.7 44.4
2005 65.6 70.1 65.2 48.7 37.1 47.1
2006 65.5 69.4 58.0 44.0 44.1 38.7
2007 66.9 70.1 56.3 45.6 43.6 40.4
2008 66.4 70.3 57.4 47.3 41.3 42.2
2009 66.2 70.1 63.5 49.3 43.0 39.7
2010 67.2 67.6 55.5 46.4 41.5 44.6
2011 71.4 67.8 57.1 47.4 39.8 42.8
2012 71.2 65.9 56.6 47.5 37.7 38.6
2013 72.1 67.4 55.7 45.0 38.1 39.8
2014 72.2 66.5 59.2 47.2 40.1 38.5
2015 70.8 65.8 60.1 45.7 42.8 35.8
2016 68.1 60.5 51.9 42.2 36.5 30.6
2017 70.9 61.5 52.8 48.4 38.8 32.3
2018 66.4 60.1 54.7 42.9 37.1 30.9
2019 66.6 57.5 49.8 40.0 37.6 27.2
2020 63.8 56.0 51.7 40.4 38.7 27.2
2021 60.5 48.4 47.5 35.1 27.3 22.6
(Percent)
Year Mathematics and statistics Geosciences, atmospheric sciences, and ocean sciences Computer and information sciences Physical sciences Engineering
2001 58.6 41.3 34.8 16.2 13.4
2002 65.5 32.8 44.0 21.6 16.5
2003 69.5 39.9 58.8 22.2 21.7
2004 73.1 43.1 52.7 23.8 22.0
2005 65.1 40.5 46.0 22.8 18.5
2006 57.6 43.2 35.4 23.9 14.3
2007 61.0 39.5 30.9 22.9 13.3
2008 56.6 35.5 29.6 23.2 15.1
2009 58.7 34.7 28.6 26.0 14.4
2010 57.4 26.6 28.2 29.1 16.9
2011 53.9 29.6 24.0 24.8 13.6
2012 53.7 39.2 24.5 25.6 13.5
2013 52.2 36.9 23.6 21.6 13.6
2014 50.8 30.9 21.7 23.4 14.9
2015 45.6 35.0 23.3 21.1 14.5
2016 40.1 31.8 22.6 17.3 14.0
2017 38.9 31.0 26.2 21.8 13.4
2018 38.4 31.8 25.4 16.3 12.8
2019 35.4 26.2 22.3 15.0 12.1
2020 32.9 25.3 22.3 14.4 10.3
2021 30.7 27.0 23.9 12.4 11.6

S&E = science and engineering.

Note(s):

Definite employment commitment refers to a doctorate recipient who is either returning to predoctoral employment or has signed a contract (or otherwise made a definite commitment) for employment (excludes postdoctoral study) in the coming year. Percentages are based on the number of doctorate recipients who reported definite employment commitments (including those missing employer type) and plans to stay in the United States.

Source(s):

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics, Survey of Earned Doctorates, 2021. Related detailed table 2-6.

Postdoc positions

Historically, postdoc positions have been a customary part of the early career paths of doctorate recipients in biological and biomedical sciences; physical sciences; and geosciences, atmospheric sciences, and ocean sciences, making up over half of definite commitments. Since 2001, the postdoc rate in psychology increased and reached 60% in 2021, and agricultural sciences and natural resources postdoc rates also reached 50% in 2021. In the past 20 years, postdoc rates have also increased in mathematics and statistics, health sciences, engineering, social sciences, computer and information sciences, and non-S&E fields, though rates in these fields are not as high (figure 23).

U.S. postdoctorate rate for doctorate recipients, by broad field: 2001 and 2021
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U.S. postdoctorate rate for doctorate recipients, by broad field: 2001 and 2021

(Percent)
Field 2001 2021
Geosciences, atmospheric sciences, and ocean sciences 51.1 65.8
Biological and biomedical sciences 76.5 65.7
Psychology 39.8 60.4
Physical sciences 51.7 60.0
Agricultural sciences and natural resources 40.0 49.9
Mathematics and statistics 35.7 42.0
Health sciences 25.1 39.2
Engineering 18.8 38.6
Social sciences 13.4 28.4
Computer and information sciences 11.2 22.0
Non-S&E fields 6.8 15.3

S&E = science and engineering.

Note(s):

Percentages are based on the number of doctorate recipients who reported definite commitments in the coming year, who reported whether their commitment was for employment or postdoctoral study, and who plan to live in the United States.

Source(s):

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics, Survey of Earned Doctorates, 2021. Related detailed table 2-3.

Between 2019 (before the pandemic started) and 2021, postdoc rates increased in all fields of study except biological and biomedical sciences, where it declined by 2 percentage points (table C). The largest increase was in geosciences, atmospheric sciences, and ocean sciences (7 percentage points).

U.S. postdoc rate for doctorate recipients, by broad field: 2019–21

(Percent)

S&E = science and engineering.

Note(s):

Percentages are based on the number of doctorate recipients who reported definite commitments in the coming year, who reported whether their commitment was for employment or postdoctoral study, and who plan to live in the United States.

Source(s):

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics, Survey of Earned Doctorates, 2021. Related detailed table 2-3.

Median salaries

In 2021, doctorate recipients who had definite commitments for employment or a postdoc in the United States in the coming year reported basic annual salaries that varied by their doctorate field and the type of position to which they committed.

In every field, median expected salaries for doctorate recipients committing to jobs in industry and other nonacademic sectors were higher than those in postdocs and academe (figure 24). The median salaries for postdocs in most broad fields were relatively similar, ranging from $50,000 to $55,000. Postdocs in mathematics and statistics and in computer and information sciences were the exception, with respective median salaries of $60,000 and $65,000. Doctorate recipients in computer and information sciences reported the highest median academic salaries ($95,000) and also the highest median salaries in industry positions ($160,000).

Median annual salary of doctorate recipients with definite commitments in the United States, by position type and broad field: 2021
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Median annual salary of doctorate recipients with definite commitments in the United States, by position type and broad field: 2021

(Dollars)
Field Employed position in industry or business Employed position in academe Postdoc position
Computer and information sciences 160,000 95,000 65,000
Multidisciplinary/ interdisciplinary sciences 134,500 83,000 55,000
Mathematics and statistics 133,000 65,000 60,000
Social sciences 120,000 68,500 56,000
Engineering 118,000 87,000 54,000
Physical sciences 110,000 60,000 55,000
Health sciences 108,000 80,000 53,760
Biological and biomedical sciences 105,250 60,000 53,000
Geosciences, atmospheric sciences, and ocean sciences 105,000 55,000 58,000
Agricultural sciences and natural resources 90,000 68,000 50,000
Psychology 90,000 63,000 51,500
Non-S&E fields 85,000 64,000 53,000

S&E = science and engineering.

Note(s):

Definite commitment refers to a doctorate recipient who is either returning to predoctoral employment or has signed a contract (or otherwise made a definite commitment) for employment or postdoctoral study in the coming year and plans to stay in the United States. Industry includes all nonacademic sectors, including self-employment, private for-profit and private nonprofit, and government.

Source(s):

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics, Survey of Earned Doctorates, 2021. Related detailed table 6-6 and table 6-7.

Temporary visa holders and postgraduation

In 2021, 80% of S&E temporary visa holder doctorate recipients with definite commitments reported that the location of their postdoc or employment position was in the United States, up from 76% in 2001. Expected stay rates were highest (above 80%) in computer and information sciences, engineering, biological and biomedical sciences, and physical sciences and lowest in social sciences and non-S&E fields (54% and 58%, respectively). Between 2001 and 2021, expected stay rates increased the most in agricultural sciences and natural resources and in health sciences (figure 25).

Temporary visa holder doctorate recipients with definite commitments in the United States, by broad field: 2001–21
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Temporary visa holder doctorate recipients with definite commitments in the United States, by broad field: 2001–21

(Percent)
Field 2001 2021
Computer and information sciences 83.3 87.2
Engineering 82.2 85.2
Biological and biomedical sciences 84.6 84.7
Physical sciences 86.7 81.6
Psychology 69.0 76.0
Mathematics and statistics 76.3 75.9
Agricultural sciences and natural resources 51.4 75.2
Geosciences, atmospheric sciences, and ocean sciences 74.3 73.7
Health sciences 54.2 72.9
Social sciences 53.6 54.0
Non-S&E 50.4 57.5

S&E = science and engineering.

Note(s):

See appendix table SRA-1 for a listing of broad fields and their constituent subfields. Definite commitment refers to a doctorate recipient who is either returning to predoctoral employment or has signed a contract (or otherwise made a definite commitment) for employment or postdoctoral study in the coming year.

Source(s):

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics, Survey of Earned Doctorates, 2021. Related detailed table 6-3.

Since 2019, which was before the pandemic started, the proportion of temporary visa holder doctorate recipients with definite commitments in the United States declined by 4 percentage points in mathematics and statistics, by 3 percentage points in social sciences, and by 9 percentage points in non-S&E fields. It increased or stayed flat in all other fields.