References

Aizcorbe AM, Moylan CE, Robbins CA. 2009. Toward Better Measurement of Innovation and Intangibles. Survey of Current Business. BEA Briefing June:10–23. Washington, DC: Bureau of Economic Analysis, Department of Commerce.

Antolin-Diaz J, Surico P. 2025. The Long-Run Effects of Government Spending. American Economic Review 115(7):2376–413. Available at https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/aer.20231278. Accessed 16 April 2026.

Arora A, Belenzon S, Ferracuti E, Nagar J. 2024. Revisiting the Private Value of Scientific Inventions. Working Paper No. 33056. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research. Available at https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w33056/w33056.pdf. Accessed 16 April 2026.

Arora A, Belenzon S, Sheer L. 2021. Knowledge Spillovers and Corporate Investment in Scientific Research. American Economic Review 111(3):871–98. Available at https://www.aeaweb.org/articles/pdf/doi/10.1257/aer.20171742. Accessed 16 April 2026.

AUTM. Statistics Access for Technology Transfer (STATT) Database, Version 4.2. Accessed July 2025.

Azoulay P, Graff Zivin J, Li D, Sampat B. 2019. Public R&D Investments and Private-sector Patenting: Evidence from NIH Funding Rules. Review of Economic Studies 86:117–52. Available at https://doi.org/10.1093/restud/rdy034. Accessed 16 April 2026.

Biden J. 2022. Executive Order on Advancing Biotechnology and Biomanufacturing Innovation for a Sustainable, Safe, and Secure American Bioeconomy. September 12. Available at https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/briefing-room/presidential-actions/2022/09/12/executive-order-on-advancing-biotechnology-and-biomanufacturing-innovation-for-a-sustainable-safe-and-secure-american-bioeconomy/. Accessed 27 August 2025.

Bresnahan T. 2010. General Purpose Technologies. In Hall BH, Rosenberg N, editors, Economics of Innovation, Vol. 2, pp. 761–91. Elsevier.

Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA). 2024. U.S. International Economic Accounts: Concepts and Methods. Available at https://www.bea.gov/resources/methodologies/us-international-economic-accounts-concepts-methods. Accessed 29 September 2025.

Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA). 2025a. International Trade in Goods and Services: U.S. Trade in Goods and Services by Selected Countries and Areas, 1999–Present. Washington, DC: Department of Commerce. Available at https://www.bea.gov/data/intl-trade-investment/international-trade-goods-and-services. Accessed 06 January 2026.

Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA). 2025b. International Data. Table 2.1. U.S. Trade in Services, by Type of Service. Available at
https://apps.bea.gov/iTable/?reqid=62&step=9&isuri=1&6210=4#eyJhcHBpZCI6NjIsInN0Z
XBzIjpbMSw5LDZdLCJkYXRhIjpbWyJQcm9kdWN0IiwiNCJdL
FsiVGFibGVMaXN0IiwiMjQ1Il1dfQ==. Accessed 12 September 2025.

Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). 2025. Occupational Employment Projections Data, Special Tabulations of 2024–34 Employment Projections. Available at https://www.bls.gov/emp/data/occupational-data.htm. Accessed 25 ‎November ‎2025.

Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). 2026. Office of Productivity and Technology. Productivity. Available at https://www.bls.gov/productivity/. Accessed 1 April 2026.

Census Bureau. 2014–24. American Community Survey, 1-Year PUMS, 2013–19, 2021–23. Public Use Microdata Sample. Available at https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs/microdata/access.html. Accessed 5 November 2024.

Census Bureau. 2025. Annual Estimates of the Resident Population by Sex, Age, Race, and Hispanic Origin for the United States: April 1, 2020 to July 1, 2024 (NC-EST2024-ASR6H). Available at https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/demo/popest/2020s-national-detail.html. Accessed 1 February 2026.

Coe DT, Helpman E. 1995. International R&D Spillovers. European Economic Review 39(5):859–87. Available at https://doi.org/10.1016/0014-2921(94)00100-E. Accessed 16 December 2025.

Coe DT, Helpman E, Hoffmaister AW. 2009. International R&D Spillovers and Institutions. European Economic Review 53(7):723–41. Available at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroecorev.2009.02.005. Accessed 16 December 2025.

Congress. 2003. 21st Century Nanotechnology Research and Development Act. Public Law 108-153. 108th Cong. Available at https://www.congress.gov/bill/108th-congress/senate-bill/189. Accessed 22 December 2025.

Congress. 2011. America COMPETES Reauthorization Act of 2010. Public Law 111-358. 111th Cong. Available at https://www.congress.gov/bill/111th-congress/house-bill/5116. Accessed 22 December 2025.

Congress. 2018. National Quantum Initiative Act of 2018. Public Law 115-368. 115th Cong. Available at https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/house-bill/6227. Accessed 22 December 2025.

Congress. 2021. National Artificial Intelligence Initiative Act of 2020 (as Division E of the William M. (Mac) Thornberry National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2021). Public Law 116-283, Division E. 116th Cong. Available at https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-bill/6216. Accessed 22 December 2025.

Congress. 2022. CHIPS and Science Act of 2022. Public Law 117-167. 117th Cong. Available at https://www.congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/house-bill/4346. Accessed 22 December 2025.

Congressional Research Service (CRS). 2023. Semiconductors and the Semiconductor Industry. Washington, DC: CRS.

Congressional Research Service (CRS). 2024. Made in China 2025 and Industrial Policies: Issues for Congress. IF10964. Washington, DC: Library of Congress. Available at https://www.congress.gov/crs-product/IF10964. Accessed 16 December 2025.

Congressional Research Service (CRS). 2025a. Productivity Growth: Trends and Policy Issues. R48695. Washington, DC: Library of Congress. Available at https://www.congress.gov/crs-product/R48695. Accessed 16 December 2025.

Congressional Research Service (CRS). 2025b. U.S.-China Trade Relations. IF11284. Washington, DC: Library of Congress. Available at https://www.congress.gov/crs-product/IF11284. Accessed 16 December 2025.

European Patent Office (EPO). 2025. PATSTAT Database. Available at https://data.epo.org/expert-services/. Accessed 30 September 2025.

Fieldhouse AJ, Mertens K. 2023. The Returns to Government R&D: Evidence from U.S. Appropriations Shocks. Working Paper 2305. Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas. Available at https://www.dallasfed.org/~/media/documents/research/papers/2023/wp2305r1.pdf. Accessed 16 December 2025.

Foster-McGregor N, Mohnen P. 2023. The Factors That Shape a Country’s Ability to Benefit from International R&D Spillovers. ERC Insight Paper. Coventry and Birmingham, United Kingdom: Enterprise Research Center. Available at https://www.enterpriseresearch.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/ERC-Insight-The-factors-that-shape-a-countrys-ability-to-benefit-from-international-RD-spillovers-Foster-McGregor-Mohnen.pdf. Accessed 16 April 2026.

Gross DP, Sampat BN. 2023. America, Jump-Started: World War II R&D and the Takeoff of the US Innovation System. American Economic Review 113(12):3323–56. Available at https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/aer.20221365. Accessed 16 April 2026.

Kantor S, Whalley A. 2025. Moonshot: Public R&D and Growth. American Economic Review 115(9):2891–25. Available at https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/aer.20220540. Accessed 16 April 2026.

Kratsios M. 2025. ICYMI: President Trump Outlines OSTP’s Goals and Priorities. Available at https://www.whitehouse.gov/articles/2025/03/icymi-president-trump-outlines-ostps-goals-and-priorities/. Accessed 27 August 2025.

Layne R. 2024. Open Source Software: The $9 Trillion Resource Companies Take for Granted. Harvard Business School Working Knowledge March 22. Available at https://www.library.hbs.edu/working-knowledge/open-source-software-the-nine-trillion-resource-companies-take-for-granted. Accessed 29 September 2025.

Liverpool L. 2023. AI Intensifies Fight Against Paper Mills. Nature 618(7964):222–23.

Ministry of Education, Government of India. All India Survey on Higher Education (various years). Available at https://aishe.gov.in/aishe-final-report/. Accessed 9 January 2026.

Ministry of Education, People’s Republic of China. Educational Statistics in 2022. Available at http://en.moe.gov.cn/. Accessed 9 January 2026.

Moretti E, Steinwender C, Van Reenen J. 2019. The Intellectual Spoils of War? Defense R&D, Productivity and International Spillovers. NBER Working Paper No. 26483. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research. Available at https://www.nber.org/papers/w26483. Accessed 16 December 2025.

Mulvaney M, Kratsios M. 2018. FY 2020 Administration Research and Development Budget Priorities. Memorandum M-18-22. Washington, DC: Executive Office of the President. Available at https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/M-18-22.pdf. Accessed 22 December 2025.

Myers K, Lanahan L. 2022. Estimating Spillovers from Publicly Funded R&D: Evidence from the U.S. Department of Energy. American Economic Review 112(7):2393–423.

Nasdaq, Inc. 2026. Stock Screener. Available at https://www.nasdaq.com/market-activity/stocks/screener. Accessed 20 April 2026.

National Bureau of Statistics of China. China Statistical Yearbook (various years). Available at https://www.stats.gov.cn/english/Statisticaldata/yearbook/. Accessed 29 September 2025.

National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). 2024a. High School Longitudinal Study of 2009 (HSLS:09) Postsecondary Education Administrative Records Collection (PEAR). Available at https://nces.ed.gov/surveys/hsls09/. Accessed 10 April 2026.

National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). 2024b. International Computer and Information Literacy Study (ICILS): ICILS 2023 U.S. Results. Available at https://nces.ed.gov/surveys/icils/icils2023/international.asp. Accessed 9 June 2025.

National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). 2024c. TIMSS 2023 U.S. Highlights Web Report. NCES 2024-184. Washington, DC. Available at https://nces.ed.gov/timss/results23/index.asp. Retrieved 17 January 2025.

National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). 2025. Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) Completions Survey: 2012–24. Available at https://nces.ed.gov/ipeds/use-the-data. Accessed 1 December 2025.

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics (NCSES). 2024a. Business R&D Performance in the United States Nears $700 Billion in 2022. NSF 24-334. Alexandria, VA: U.S. National Science Foundation. Available at https://ncses.nsf.gov/pubs/nsf24334.

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics (NCSES). 2024b. Microbusinesses Performed $5.7 Billion of R&D in the United States in 2022. NSF 25-302. Alexandria, VA: U.S. National Science Foundation. Available at https://ncses.nsf.gov/pubs/nsf25302.

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics (NCSES). 2025a. Annual Business Survey: 2023 (Data Year 2022) (2023 ABS: Date Year 2022). NSF 25-303. Alexandria, VA: U.S. National Science Foundation. Available at https://ncses.nsf.gov/surveys/annual-business-survey/2023.

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics (NCSES). 2025b. Business Enterprise Research and Development: 2023 (BERD 2023). NSF 25-354. Alexandria, VA: U.S. National Science Foundation. Available at https://ncses.nsf.gov/surveys/business-enterprise-research-development/2023.

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics (NCSES). 2025c. Doctorate Recipients from U.S. Universities: 2024 Data Tables (SED 2024). NSF 25-349. Alexandria, VA: U.S. National Science Foundation. Available at https://ncses.nsf.gov/pubs/nsf25349.

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics (NCSES). 2025d. Federal Funds for Research and Development: Fiscal Years 2023–24 (Federal Funds 2023–24). NSF 25-328. Alexandria, VA: U.S. National Science Foundation. Available at https://ncses.nsf.gov/surveys/federal-funds-research-development/2023-2024/.

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics (NCSES). 2025e. Higher Education Research and Development: Fiscal Year 2024 (HERD 2024). NSF 26-304. Alexandria, VA: U.S. National Science Foundation. Available at https://ncses.nsf.gov/surveys/higher-education-research-development/2024.

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics (NCSES). 2025f. National Survey of College Graduates: 2023 (NSCG 2023). NSF 25-322. Alexandria, VA: U.S. National Science Foundation. Available at https://ncses.nsf.gov/surveys/national-survey-college-graduates/2023.

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics (NCSES). 2025g. Special tabulations by Science-Metrix of Elsevier’s Scopus abstract and citation database. Alexandria, VA: U.S. National Science Foundation.

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics (NCSES). 2025h. Special tabulations of the 1990–24 main National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) mathematics assessments, National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). Alexandria, VA: U.S. National Science Foundation.

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics (NCSES). 2025i. Special tabulations of the 1990–24 main National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) science assessments, National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). Alexandria, VA: U.S. National Science Foundation.

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics (NCSES). 2025j. Special tabulations of 2025 Student and Exchange Visitor System (SEVIS) database, Department of Homeland Security, Immigration and Customs Enforcement (DHS, ICE). Alexandria, VA: U.S. National Science Foundation.

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics (NCSES). 2025k. Special tabulations by Science-Metrix of USPTO PatentsView. Alexandria, VA: U.S. National Science Foundation.

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics (NCSES). 2025l. Survey of Doctorate Recipients, 2023 (SDR 2023). NSF 25-321. Alexandria, VA: U.S. National Science Foundation. Available at https://ncses.nsf.gov/surveys/doctorate-recipients/2023.

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics (NCSES). 2026a. Federal Funds for Research and Development: Fiscal Years 2024–25 (Federal Funds 2024–25). NSF 26-316. Alexandria, VA: U.S. National Science Foundation. Available at https://ncses.nsf.gov/surveys/federal-funds-research-development/2024-2025/.

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics (NCSES). 2026b. National Patterns of R&D Resources: 2023–24 Data Update (National Patterns 2023–24). NSF 26-313. Alexandria, VA: U.S. National Science Foundation. Available at https://ncses.nsf.gov/data-collections/national-patterns/2023-2024.

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics (NCSES). 2026c. Survey of Graduate Students and Postdoctorates in Science and Engineering: Fall 2024 (GSS 2024). NSF 26-307. Alexandria, VA: U.S. National Science Foundation. Available at https://ncses.nsf.gov/surveys/graduate-students-postdoctorates-s-e/2024.

National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics (NCSES). 2026d. U.S. R&D Totaled $937 Billion in 2023; Estimate for 2024 Indicates Further Increase to $988 Billion. NSF 26-314. Alexandria, VA: U.S. National Science Foundation. Available at https://ncses.nsf.gov/pubs/nsf26314.

National Nanotechnology Coordination Office (NNCO). 2024. NNI Supplement to the President’s 2025 Budget. Washington, DC: National Science and Technology Council. Available at https://www.nano.gov/2025BudgetSupplement/. Accessed 22 December 2025.

National Quantum Coordination Office (NQCO). 2024. National Quantum Initiative Supplement to the President’s FY 2025 Budget. Washington, DC: Executive Office of the President. Available at https://www.quantum.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/NQI-Annual-Report-FY2025.pdf. Accessed 22 December 2025.

National Science and Technology Council (NSTC). 2020a. National Strategy for Critical and Emerging Technologies. Washington, DC: Executive Office of the President. Available at https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/National-Strategy-for-CET.pdf. Accessed 22 December 2025.

National Science and Technology Council (NSTC). 2020b. NSTC. Washington, DC: Executive Office of the President. Available at https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/ostp/nstc/. Accessed 22 December 2025.

National Science and Technology Council (NSTC). 2024. Critical and Emerging Technologies List Update. Washington, DC: Executive Office of the President. Available at https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/Critical-and-Emerging-Technologies-List-2024-Update.pdf. Accessed 22 December 2025.

National Science and Technology Council (NSTC). 2025. National Strategy on Microelectronics Research. Washington, DC: NSTC, Office of Science and Technology Policy. Available at https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Amended-National-Strategy-on-Microelectronics-Research.pdf. Accessed 25 September 2025.

National Science Board (NSB), National Science Foundation. 2000. Science and Engineering Indicators 2000. NSB-00-1. Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation.

National Science Board (NSB), National Science Foundation. 2002. Science and Engineering Indicators 2002. NSB-02-1. Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation.

National Science Board (NSB), National Science Foundation. 2021. The STEM Labor Force of Today: Scientists, Engineers and Skilled Technical Workers. Science and Engineering Indicators 2022. NSB-2021-2. Alexandria, VA. Available at https://ncses.nsf.gov/pubs/nsb20212/.

National Science Board (NSB), National Science Foundation. 2023. Publications Output: U.S. Trends and International Comparisons. Science and Engineering Indicators 2024. NSB-2023-33. Alexandria, VA. Available at https://ncses.nsf.gov/pubs/nsb202333/.

National Science Board (NSB), National Science Foundation. 2024. Invention, Knowledge Transfer, and Innovation. Science and Engineering Indicators 2024. NSB-2024-1. Alexandria, VA. Available at https://ncses.nsf.gov/pubs/nsb20241/.

National Science Board (NSB), National Science Foundation. 2025. Discovery: R&D Activity and Research Publications. Science and Engineering Indicators 2026. NSB-2025-7. Alexandria, VA. Available at https://ncses.nsf.gov/pubs/nsb20257/.

National Science Board (NSB), National Science Foundation. 2026a. STEM Talent: Education, Training, and Workforce. Science and Engineering Indicators 2026. NSB-2026-1. Alexandria, VA. Available at https://ncses.nsf.gov/pubs/nsb20261/.

National Science Board (NSB), National Science Foundation. 2026b. Translation to Impact: U.S. and Global Science, Technology, and Innovation Output. Science and Engineering Indicators 2026. NSB-2026-2. Alexandria, VA. Available at https://ncses.nsf.gov/pubs/nsb20262/.

Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP). 2024. White House Office of Science and Technology Policy Releases Updated Critical and Emerging Technologies List [press release], 12 February. Available at https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/ostp/news-updates/2024/02/12/white-house-office-of-science-and-technology-policy-releases-updated-critical-and-emerging-technologies-list/. Accessed 22 December 2025.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). 2015. Frascati Manual 2015: Guidelines for Collecting and Reporting Data on Research and Experimental Development, The Measurement of Scientific, Technological and Innovation Activities. Paris: OECD Publishing.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). 2016. OECD Taxonomy of Economic Activities Based on R&D Intensity. Paris, France: OECD Publishing. Available at https://doi.org/10.1787/5jlv73sqqp8r-en. Accessed 29 September 2025.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). 2024. Analytical Business Enterprise Research and Development (ANBERD). Available at https://www.oecd.org/en/data/datasets/analytical-business-enterprise-research-and-development.html. Accessed 13 November 2025.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). 2025a. Education at a Glance 2025: OECD Indicators. Paris: OECD Publishing. Available at https://doi.org/10.1787/1c0d9c79-en. Accessed 13 November 2025.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). 2025b. Main Science and Technology Indicators (MSTI). September 2025 release. Available at https://www.oecd.org/science/msti.htm. Accessed 30 September 2025.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Eurostat (OECD, Eurostat). 2018. Oslo Manual 2018: Guidelines for Collecting, Reporting and Using Data on Innovation. 4th ed. The Measurement of Scientific, Technological and Innovation Activities. Paris: OECD Publishing, Luxembourg: Eurostat.

Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO). 2020. 2104 Requirements of 35 U.S.C. 101 [R-10.2019]. Available at https://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/pac/mpep/s2104.html. Accessed 29 September 2025.

Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO). 2025a. Glossary. Available at https://www.uspto.gov/learning-and-resources/glossary. Accessed 29 September 2025.

Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO). 2025b. PatentsView (tabulated by Science-Metrix). Available at https://patentsview.org/. Accessed September 2025.

PitchBook Data, Inc. 2025. Venture Capital and Private Equity Database. Available at https://pitchbook.com/. Accessed May 2025.

Richardson RA, Hong SS, Byrne JA, Stoeger T, Amaral LAN. 2025. The Entities Enabling Scientific Fraud at Scale Are Large, Resilient, and Growing Rapidly. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 122(32):p.e2420092122.

Ruggles S, Flood S, Sobek M, Backman D, Cooper G, Rivera Drew JA, Richards S, Rodgers R, Schroeder J, Williams KCW. 2025. IPUMS USA: Version 16.0 (Decennial 2000 1%, ACS 1-Year 2009, ACS 1-Year 2019, ACS 1-Year 2024). Available at https://doi.org/10.18128/D010.V16.0.

S&P Dow Jones Indices. 2025. S&P 500: The Gauge of the U.S. Large-Cap Market. Available at https://www.spglobal.com/spdji/en/documents/additional-material/sp-500-brochure.pdf. Accessed 10 April 2026.

S&P Global Market Intelligence. 2025. Comparative Industry Service, special tabulations. Accessed 2 April 2025.

Sandu S, Ciocanel B. 2014. Impact of R&D and Innovation on High-Tech Export. Procedia Economics and Finance 15:80–90. Available at https://doi.org/10.1016/S2212-5671(14)00450-X. Accessed 16 December 2025.

Trump D. 2025. A Letter to Michael Kratsios, Director of the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy. Briefings & Statements. 26 March. Available at https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefings-statements/2025/03/a-letter-to-michael-kratsios-director-of-the-white-house-office-of-science-and-technology-policy/. Accessed June 2025.

United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, Institute for Statistics (UNESCO, UIS). 2025. Glossary: Internationally Mobile Students. Available at https://databrowser.uis.unesco.org/resources/glossary/3242. Accessed 27 April 2026.

Van Noorden R. 2023. How Big Is Science’s Fake Paper Problem. Nature 623(7987):466–67.

Vought R, Kratsios M. 2025. FY 2027 Administration Research and Development Budget Priorities and Cross-Cutting Actions [memorandum], 23 September. Washington, DC: Executive Office of the President. Available at https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/FY27-OMB-OSTP-RD-Priorites-Memo-FINALSIGNED.pdf. Accessed 22 December 2025.

Waltman L, van Eck NJ, Wouters P. 2013. Counting Publications and Citations: Is More Always Better? Journal of Informetrics 7(3):635–41. Available at https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1751157713000357. Accessed 14 January 2026.

World Bank. 2025. International Comparison Program. Available at https://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/icp. Accessed 3 September 2025.

World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO). 2020. What Is Intellectual Property? Geneva, Switzerland: WIPO. Available at https://www.wipo.int/en/web/about-ip. Accessed 14 January 2026.

World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO). 2026. World Intellectual Property Report 2026: Technology on the Move. Geneva, Switzerland: WIPO. Available at https://tind.wipo.int/record/59025. Accessed 16 April 2026.

Young SD, Prabhakar A. 2023. Multi-Agency Research and Development Priorities for the FY 2025 Budget [memorandum], 17 August. Washington, DC: Executive Office of the President. Available at https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/08/FY2025-OMB-OSTP-RD-Budget-Priorities-Memo.pdf. Accessed 22 December 2025.